abacus

1. Latin-Greek-Hebrew. A device for making mathematical calculations, especially in the past. It consists of an usually wooden frame with bars along which beads are slid for calculating (fig.). In Latin such a bead is called a 'calculus', meaning a 'small stone'. Hence, the etymological origin of the word 'calculator'. See also Chinese abacus.

2. Latin-Greek-Hebrew. Architectural term referring to a flat slab on top of a capital.

abat (อาบัติ)

Thai-Rajasap. Transgression of a minor precept by a Buddhist monk. See also sa-mee and Buddhist precepts.

abayamuk (อบายมุข)

Thai. The way to hell and ruin. A term used for temptations and vices, generally understood to be getting drunk, going out late at night, watching games, gambling, befriend bad people and indolence or laziness.

abhaya (आभा)

Sanskrit. 'Fearless'. A mudra symbolizing 'calm', 'reassurance' and 'no fear', and refers to a scene in which the Buddha prevented bloodshed in a quarrel over water and is commonly seen associated with standing or walking Buddha images. The position with the right hand raised and palm forward is called pahng hahm yaat (fig.) and symbolizes the Buddha's offer, to his followers, of protection or freedom from fear. The same position with the left hand raised is called pahng hahm prakaen jan. Thailand has a variation of this position in which the Buddha raises two hands (fig.) and it is known as the mudra of 'restraining the waters'. It refers to an episode when the Buddha calmed the floodwaters of the Nairanjana river, a tributary of the Ganges in Northern India. In Thai this position is called pahng hahm samut. Sometimes these positions are displayed next to each other (fig.). See also Abhaya.

Abhaya (आभा)

Sanskrit. 'Unafraid, fearless'. A god that is also the patron saint of the Sakya clan, and to whom the newborn Siddhartha was presented in the temple of the same name according to ancient tradition. See also abhaya.

Abhidhamma

Pali. Buddhist philosophy.

Abhimanyu (अभिमन्यु)

Sanskrit. 'Excessive anger'. Son of Arjuna and Subhadra. He was a brilliant warrior who whilst still in his mother's womb had learned the knowledge of penetrating into the Chakravyuha, a seven-tier defensive spiral formation, by overhearing Arjuna talking about it with his mother. However, his mother fell asleep while she was being explained about it and so he could not learn how to escape from it, hence he later died in battle trying to break free from the Chakravyuha. Shortly after his death his wife Uttara had a miscarriage but the child named Parikshit was brought back to life by Krishna and eventually succeeded Yudhishthira as king of Hastianpura.

Abhinavagupta (अभिनवगुप्त)

Sanskrit. Philosopher from the 10th century AD and writer on aesthetics. One of the most influential philosophers from the Kashmir school of Shivaism.

abhisheka (अभिषेक)

1. Sanskrit. 'Unction' or 'blessing' by sprinkling water, also the ceremonial sprinkling of images with water, milk, saffron, flower petals or other objects, to honour or worship. Compare with the Thai term rod mon nahm.

2. Sanskrit. Ritual unction or anointment, as in abhisheka of Sri.

abhisheka of Sri

Representation of the goddess Sri seated on a lotus base (fig.) and holding a lotus (fig.), one of her attributes, in each hand (fig.), whilst being doused with water by two elephants, as an abhisheka. It symbolizes prosperity in both Buddhist and Hindu iconography as Sri is the goddess of beauty, good fortune and wealth. Her name is also spelt Shri.

achara (अचर)

Sanskrit. 'Behaviour' or 'conduct'. The rules for ritual practice of religions, orders and castes; ceremonial rites. Also transcribed acara.

acharya (आचार्य)

Sanskrit. 'Teacher' or 'guru'. Often used for a group of Vaishnava teachers who base their teachings on Sanskrit as well as on Tamil scriptures. They worship the alvars which it is believed are incarnations of the attributes of Vishnu. Acharya is the root word for the Thai word ajaan, meaning 'teacher'.

acupressure

Therapy by using pressure and massage on precisely determined points of the body, used in traditional Thai massage.

acupuncture

An old form of treatment that originated in China in which long needles of steel, silver or gold are placed in the subcutaneous connective tissue in precisely determined spots of the body.

adi (आदि)

Sanskrit. 'First, beginning' or 'chief', as in Adi-Buddha.

Adi-Buddha (आदिबुद्ध)

Sanskrit. 'The original Buddha'. The supreme primordial Buddha in the Vajrayana sect of Mahayana Buddhism, who created himself from the original void. In true essence this Buddha is abstract, illusionary and inconceivable. Therefore he cannot be represented in art, unless in his revealed and more earthly forms such as Vajradhara and Vajrasattva, as found in Khmer art, and the various bodhisatvas. Vairochana is considered the Javan Adi-Buddha. Usually depicted in royal attire or in hermaphrodite union with a consort, a principle in Vajrayana Buddhism known as yabyum.

Adi-Granth (आदिग्रंथ)

Sanskrit. Holy book with more than five hundred hymns composed by five gurus and holy men and written by Arjan Dev (1581-1606) in 1604. They are kept in the Golden Temple in Amritsar.

Aditi (अदिति)

Sanskrit. 'Unbounded, free'. The Vedic goddess of space and mother of all creatures and gods. Her first offspring were the Adityas. One of them, Daksha, is considered both her daughter and mother. In later mythology she appears as the wife of the seer Kashyapa, by whom she became the mother of Vishnu in his avatar as Vamana, and of Indra. Besides this she is the goddess of the sky, consciousness, the past, the future and fertility. The Thai word for 'the past' (adit) derives from Aditi.

Aditya (आदित्य)

1. Sanskrit. 'Sun'. The Thai word 'ahtit' (sun) is derived from it. See also Phra Ahtit.

2. Sanskrit. Sons of Aditi. Each of them represent a certain aspect of natural phenomena. In scriptures they first appear as just six then later seven, of whom Varuna was the first. They then became eight in number and eventually twelve, personifying the sun in the twelve months of the year. They have different names, many epithets of the sun. They represent aspects of light and are jointly identified with Aditya, the sun. See also Phra Ahtit.

adorned Buddha

A style of Buddha image popular in the Rattanakosin period, in which the Buddha image is decorated or 'adorned' with jewels or royal attire, and a headdress. In Thai phra song kreuang. See also crowned Buddha.

Adsadongkot (อัสดงคต)

Thai. Another name for Prajim.

Agastya (अगस्त्य)

Sanskrit. An Indian hermit or rishi who it is believed brought Hinduism to South India. He appears in the Ramayana and is a scholar in literature and science. In Java he appears as the Bhattara-Guru and is associated with the worship of Shiva.

Agni (अग्नि)

Sanskrit. 'Fire'. One of three great Vedic gods with Indra and Surya. He presides over the earth and is known as the god of fire whilst Indra presides over the air and Surya over the sun and sky. He is the mediator between man and the gods and thus the originator of sacrificial rites. He is one of the eight lokapalas protecting the main wind directions, presiding over the Southeast and is often depicted with a ram. In Thai known as Ahkney.

ahimsa (अहिंसा)

Sanskrit. The principle of non-violence in thought, action, word and speech according to Buddhist scriptures, and a teaching from Jainism which is often translated as 'respect for and non-harming towards all living creatures'.

Ahkney (อาคเนย์)

1. Thai. 'Southeast' or 'southeastern'. The wind direction guarded by the lokapala Phra Ahkney (in Sanskrit known as Agni). See also Udon, Isaan, Burapah, Taksin, Horadih, Prajim and Phayap.

2. Thai name for Agni.

Ai-ma

Mother goddess of the earth with the Lahu people. MORE ON THIS.

Airavata (ऐरावत)

Sanskrit. 'Child of the water'. The multi-headed white elephant divinity of Hindu-Buddhist religion, in Thailand called Erawan, and produced during the churning of the Ocean of Milk. He is the symbol of the clouds and the vahana of the deity Indra, the Vedic god of the heavens, weather and war as well as one of the elephants that support the four directions of the world. He generally appears with three heads though sometimes may have 33 heads, representing the various heavenly states. One text even mentions Erawan as a 100 headed white elephant serving as a mount to Narai. The 2nd version of the Ramakien, written by Rama II, fully describes Erawan when Indrachit, one of the demon characters disguised as Indra succeeds in fooling the monkey general Hanuman. Sometimes depicted with Ganesha as its rider (fig.).

Aisawan Thipphaya Asana (ไอศวรรย์ทิพยอาสน์)

Thai. 'Devine throne of personal freedom'. Pavilion in Thai style in Bang Pa-in summer palace at Ayutthaya. It was built in 1876 by order of king Rama V and after the Aphon Phimok Prasat pavilion in the royal palace in Bangkok, built by king Mongkut and used to exchange the kakuttapan (the Thai royal regalia) before boarding his palanquin. The pavilion houses a statue of Rama V in the uniform of Field Marshal, erected by his son Rama VI.

ajaan (อาจารย์)

Thai word meaning 'teacher' or 'master' and often used in association with the Buddha. Sometimes spelled 'achaan' or 'ajarn', its etymology refers to the Sanskrit term 'acharya', a respectful title for teacher or spiritual leader. Common Thai for teacher is kru or gru and is derived from the word guru.

Ajanta

Name of a World Heritage site of Buddhist caves found in West India and dating from around 200 BC to 650 AD. The 29 man-made caves are cut into volcanic rock and contain sculptures and murals depicting the life of the Buddha.

Akha

Hill tribe in Northern Thailand. The Akha belong to the poorest of hill tribe people and are called Igor by the Thai (fig.), a word also known in Laos and probably derived from a word meaning 'outcast slave'. They usually live high in the mountains where they previously cultivated opium. Typical of their culture is the consecrated gates (fig.) found at each end of their villages (fig.), They use copulating images amongst other items to ward off evil spirits (fig.). Unique features of the Akha are the houses which are built directly on the ground (fig.) with a floor of  trampled earth, a harvest swing (fig.), and the helmet like headdresses of the women (fig.). This tribe has several subgroups, including the Loimi (fig.) and the U Lo (fig.). MORE ON THIS.

Akha swing

Swing in Akha villages, used during the harvest festival (fig.).

Akkarajaya (อัครชายา)

Thai. One of the principal consorts of a king, sometimes translated as queen consort.

Alexander the Great

Macedonian king and conqueror who invaded India in 326 BC bringing with him Greek artisans whom it is assumed influenced the first known humanoid images of the Buddha that later developed into the Gandhara style of Buddhist art.

alms bowl

See baat.

alvar (ஆழ்வார்கள்)

Tamil. 'Immersed' or 'those immersed in god'. Vaishnava poet saints from the 6th to 9th century. There are believed to be ten or twelve and are regarded as incarnations of the attributes of the god Vishnu. They are worshipped as minor gods.

amalaka (आमलक)

1. Sanskrit. A circular decorative ribbed, almost pumpkin or star gooseberry-like ornament at the top of a northern style Hindu temple, usually above a flat circular stone called a beki. Both its name and shape are related to the mayom.

2. Sanskrit. Name of the Indian gooseberry (emblic myrobalan), a tree and fruit associated with the Thai mayom.

Amaravati (अमरावती)

1. Sanskrit. The capital of Indra's Tavatimsa heaven situated near the mythical Mt. Meru and renowned for its splendor.

2. Sanskrit. A place in South India where a Buddhist school of art developed from the second to the fourth centuries AD.

Amareswara (अमरेश्वर)

Sanskrit. A title given to both Vishnu, Indra and Shiva, meaning 'lord of the immortals'.

amarit (อมฤต)

Thai for amrita. Also nahm amarit.

amdaeng (อำแดง)

Thai. General title for a woman equivalent to nang. Formerly used in formal documents but now only used facetiously or derogatorily.

Amida

See Amithaba.

Amitabha (अमिताभ)

1. Pali-Sanskrit.  One of the five transcendental or dhyani buddhas of Mahayana Buddhism who reigns over western paradise and is the personification of Eternal Light. It is believed that by calling on this buddha it is possible to be reborn in paradise and consequently gain enlightenment and become a buddha in the next life, thus making him one of the most popular jinas. In China and Japan he even replaced the Shakyamuni Buddha in importance. In art he is usually depicted seated in meditation. The male deity Avalokitesvara always wears a figure of Amithaba in his headdress, of whom he is an emanation. Also Amida. In Thai Phra Amitahp Phuttachao.

2. Pali-Sanskrit. The historical Buddha.

Amnat Charoen (อำนาจเจริญ)

Thai. 'Power of prosperity'. Name of a small city and a 3,161 km² province (map) in Isaan, near the Mae Khong river, adjacent to Laos and around 585 kms northeast of Bangkok. The province borders Mukdahan in the North, the Democratic Republic of Laos in the East, Ubon Ratchathani in the South and Yasothon in the West. It once was itself an amphur of the province of Ubon Ratchathani. Amongst its places of interest are a natural rock formation resembling a nagaraja and the Uthayahn Buddha image. The province has many 'takhian hin' trees of the genus hopea and its important rivers are the Mae Khong and the Huay Sebok. Its main trade include paddy and truck farming, breeding of livestock, fishing, silk production and weaving. The local people celebrate their seasonal festivals according to the Hit Sip Song Khong Sip Sih principle, a general name for all kinds of annually recurring events in which they mainly perform acts of tamboon, such as the kathin ceremony, the rocket festival, the baked rice balls festival, Loi Krathong festival, etc. The province has six amphur and one king amphur. Also spelt Amnat Charun and pronunciation Amnaat Chareun.

ampheu (อำเภอ)

Thai. See amphur.

amphur (อำเภอ)

Thai. 'District'. An administrative subdivision of a jangwat or province. Thailand has a total of 795 amphur. Also ampheu.

amrit (अमृत)

Sanskrit. The 'waters of immortality' surrounding the Golden Temple of the Sikhs at Amritsar, in the Indian Punjab.

amrita (अमृता)

Sanskrit. 'Non-death'. The elixir of immortality produced when the gods and demons churn the Ocean of Milk in the Indian epic of the Ramayana. The legend also appears in the Hindu epic poem Mahabharata. Often identified with soma, a nectar of immortality. In Thai amarit and nahm amarit. See also mriti.

Amritsar (अमृतसर)

Hindi-Sanskrit. 'Lake with amrita'. Place name of the Golden Temple of the Sikh religion located in the Indian Punjab, which derived its name from the sacred waters surrounding the temple called amrit, 'waters of immortality'.

amulet

A charm or protective ornament believed to shield its bearer from misfortune. Often confused with its counterpart the talisman, an object believed to bring good fortune rather than protection. Buddhist devotional plaques or amulets are often worn in Thailand to ward off bad luck and evil. They protect the wearer against disaster. This animist dimension of Buddhism is in defiance of Buddhist teaching, which forbids monks to transfer saksit onto amulets as this would be equal to showing off transcendental powers. MORE ON THIS.

Ananda

1. Cousin of Siddhartha Gautama and chief disciple of the Buddha. In art often represented as a young monk accompanied by the elderly Kassapa.

2. Name of the Thai king Rama VIII, in full known as Ananda Mahidol, or Anantha Mahidon in Thai pronunciation. He reigned from 1935 to 1946. Sometimes spelt Ananta or Anantha.

Ananda Mahidol

Name of Rama VIII, the eighth monarch of the Chakri dynasty.

Ananta (अनन्त)

1. Sanskrit. 'Boundless', 'eternal' and 'infinite'. Mythical serpent with one thousand heads on which the god Vishnu rests during the nights that separate two cosmic time periods. This theme, known as Anantasayin, is popular in Southeast Asian architectural decorations. He is king of the serpents and the symbol of the cosmic waters. When the gods and demons churned the Ocean of Milk to retrieve the nectar of immortality, they used him as the churning rope (fig.). Also known as Shesha or Sesha, and Vasuki.

2. Sanskrit. 'Boundless', 'eternal' and 'infinite'. An epithet for the Hindu god Vishnu.

3. See Anantha Mahidon.

Anantasayin (अनन्तशायिन्)

Sanskrit. 'Vishnu resting'. Epithet used for the Hindu god Vishnu when reclining on the back of the coiled serpent Ananta during his cosmic sleep, when he rests during the nights that separate two cosmic time periods. It is a popular theme in Southeast Asian architectural decorations. In Thai called Narai banthom sin.

Anantayot (อนันตยศ)

Twin brother of Mahantayot and son of the legendary Chamadevi of Lopburi, queen of the Dvaravati kingdom in the 7th century AD.

Anantha Mahidon (อานันท มหิดล)

Thai. Name of king Rama VIII.

anatman (अनात्मन्)

Sanskrit. 'Non-ego' and 'non-soul'. See also anatta.

anatta

Pali. 'Non-ego' and 'non-soul'. One of the three characteristics of existence in Buddhist doctrine along with dukha (suffering) and anicca (the impermanence of all existence). It is one of the most fundamental points in Buddhism which states that all existence and all worldly phenomena eventually have no substantial reality. In Buddhism, it pleads the impermanence of all things, it is logical to conclude that in such a temporarily existence, there cannot exist any lasting substance. In Sanskrit anatman.

Anavatapta (अनवतप्त)

Sanskrit. 'Heat-free'. Mythological lake in Buddhist cosmology. It is located in the Himalayas and is regarded as the source of the four rivers that flow through the four territories inhabited by lions, bulls, horses and elephants. When the earth comes to an end it will be last lake to disappear and the first to reappear when the world is recreated.

Anawrahta

Burmese king who reigned from 1044 to 1077 AD, as the 42nd ruler of the Pagan dynasty, and who unified the country. As a zealous convert to Theravada Buddhism he was responsible for the construction of many of the pagodas of Pagan, his most famous monument being the Shwezigon pagoda. He was also responsible for the execution of the Taungbyon brothers Shwe Hpyin Gyi and Shwe Hpyin Nge, because they hadn't placed stones near a pagoda, as ordered by the king. They were later admitted in the pantheon of 37 nats.

anchern jut (อัญเชิญจุติ)

Thai. 'Invite' (anchern) 'to be born and die (jut)', in rajasap or royal language. A scene often depicted in Buddhist murals in Thailand referring to the invitation of the bodhisattva who would later become the Buddha, incarnated as a buddha on earth. This scene occurred in Dusit heaven, the place where all bodhisattvas dwell in anticipation of their last incarnation, and following up the sawankot of king Wetsandorn, the tenth Totsachat and last Jataka of the Buddha.

Anek Kusala Sala (อเนกกุศลศาลา)

Thai. 'Many good deeds pavilion'. Chinese-Thai museum at the compound of Wat Yahn Sangwarahrahm Woramahawihaan in Huay Yai district of Chonburi province. Its name is pronounced Anek Kuson Sala and it is also called Wihaan Sian or Ta Pu Yie in Chinese, which means 'abode of the gods', Sian being the immortals of Chinese legend. It was constructed in 1988 by Sanga Kulkobkiat, who was granted 7 rai of land at the Wat Yahn temple compound. Its intention is to demonstrate Chinese and Thai mix of cultures, by exhibiting artifacts and valuable items, including large bronze images from the different Chinese dynasties, a copy of the Great Wall of China and the Terracotta Warriors, an enormous bronze statue of the 'Eight Immortals Crossing the Ocean' (fig.), Thai Art Exhibition Rooms, several Chinese and Thai style Buddha images and many other sculptures and bronze images. The official opening took place on 24 December 1993 by his Majesty the King. At that time around 220 million baht was spent on its construction and installation, most of the money collected from donations. The Chinese government gave 328 valuable items for permanent exhibition and the museum frequently adds new items to its collection.

Angada (अंगद)

Monkey warrior, son of Vali.

Angkor

Khmer. 'City' or 'capital'. The ancient capital of Cambodia. It was the centre of the Khmer empire from 802 to 1431 AD.

Angkorian period

Period in Cambodia from the 9th to the 15th century AD in which the unification of ancient Funan and Chenla took place, marking the beginning of the Angkor civilization. During this period 28 kings ruled and a shift took place from maritime commerce towards a rural economy, to the disadvantage of Funan. Art from this period shows a decline in Indian influence. The period is preceded by the pre-Angkorian period, that existed from the 1st to the 8th century AD.

Angkor Thom

Khmer. 'Big Angkor'. Name of a three square kilometer walled and moated royal Khmer city built, in the 12th century during the reign of king Jayavarman VII, who ruled from probably 1181 to 1219. After king Jayavarman VII recaptured the Angkorian capital from the Cham invaders in 1181, he began a massive building campaign across his empire, constructing Angkor Thom as his new capital and adding an outer wall and moat. The city has five entrance gates, one for each cardinal point and the Victory Gate which leads to the royal palace area. Each gate is crowned with four giant faces and with statues of the god Indra and his mount Erawan on each of the gate's corners. In front of the gates are naga-bridges that cross the moat. Lining the approach to the city its balustrades on each side display the churning of the Ocean of Milk by the gods and the asuras. Angkor Thom was the last capital of the Angkorian Empire and is located to the north of Angkor Wat. It has the great temple of Bayon (fig.) at its center. In Thai Nakhon Thom.

Angkor Vat

See Angkor Wat.

Angkor Wat

The largest of the Khmer temples (fig.) and one of the seven Wonders of the World. It was built in the early 12th century AD during the reign of king Suryavarman II and dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu. In early recordings it was actually called Phra Phitsanulok, the 'World of Vishnu'. The name Angkor Wat only became a popular designation later on. It is the only Angkorian temple complex that was constructed facing the uncommon direction of the West. It has a rectangular shape and is surrounded by an exterior wall measuring 1,300 by 1,500 meters and by a moat of 190 meters wide and with a length of 1,900 meters, surrounding the temple on four sides. It is a massive three-tiered construction crowned by five towers called prang of which the tallest stands at its center and measures 65 meters high from ground level. The exterior walls on the first level are covered with bas-reliefs and carvings, the largest in the world. With the exception the historic procession of king Suryavarman II and the theme of heaven and hell, the subject of the bas-reliefs is of Hindu origin, mainly the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics. The northern section of the western gallery depicts the Battle of Langka and the northwestern corner pavilion depicts Vishnu's avatars; the southern section of the western gallery depicts the Battle of Kurukshetra and the southwestern corner pavilion depicts Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa; the western section of the northern gallery depicts the battle between the gods and the asuras with the eastern section of the northern gallery describing Krishna's victory over the asura Bana; the western section of the southern gallery is a historical section depicting the procession of king Suryavarman II and the eastern section of the southern gallery describes the Judgement of the souls by Yama and their consignment  to heaven or hell; the northern section of the eastern gallery illustrates Vishnu's victory over the asuras and the southern section of the eastern gallery depicts the Churning of the Ocean of Milk. The second level has an abundance of wall carvings of apsaras, whose total is estimated at somewhere between 1,500 and 1,900 images, most of them wearing a crown-like headdress. Besides this the second level has a hall which is known as the Hall of the Thousand Buddhas and four gopuras, each one of them constructed in direction a the compass. The third or upper level features the main prang or tower which on each side enshrines a standing Buddha image. Angkor Wat is a stone quincunx replica of Khmer cosmology: its five towers symbolizing Mt. Meru's five peaks; the enclosing walls, the mountains at the edge of the world; and the surrounding moat, the oceans beyond. Also spelled Angkor Vat and in Thai Nakhon Wat.

angsa (อังสะ)

Thai. A shoulder piece worn by Buddhist monks and novices. It is worn either under the jiewon or as a replacement for the saffron robe when working or resting within the temple compound.

Angthong (อ่างทอง)

Name of both a town and a province (map) in Central Thailand. The province covers an area of 968.3 km² and the town has around 10,000 inhabitants. The town is situated on the banks of the Chao Phrya river, around 108 km from Bangkok and the province borders to Singburi in the North, to Lopburi in the East, to Ayutthaya in the Southeast and to Suphanburi in the West, and has seven amphur. It was formerly called Meaung Wiset Chai Chahn and Meuang Bang Kaew. The main occupation of its inhabitants is paddy and crop farming, fishing and cattle breeding, basket and drum making, trade and industry. The province has many persimmon trees and its chief rivers are the Noi and Chao Phraya. Its places of interest include Wat Chaiyo Worawihaan and Wat Pah Mohk Worawihaan.

Angulimala (अङ्गुलिमाला, องคุลิมาล)

Sanskrit-Thai. 'Garland of fingers'. The delinquent son of a brahmin who entered into the service of an evil master. He was a bandit who wore a necklace of cut-off fingers but was converted by the Buddha in Parileyyaka forest, in the eleventh year after the Buddha's Enlightenment.

angusa (अंकुश)

Sanskrit. 'Elephant hook' or 'elephant goad'. An attribute of Ganesha (fig.) that symbolizes control or the ability to steer someone in the right direction. In Thai kho and kho chang. Also transcribed ankusha and ankusa. Sometimes called ankus or angus.

anicca (अनिच्चा)

Pali. 'Worldliness', 'temporariness' or  'impermanence of all existence'. One of the three characteristics of existence in Buddhist doctrine, along with dukha (suffering) and anatta (non-ego). It claims that all existence and all phenomena in this world continuously change and don't stay the same, not even for one moment. All is perish to die at sometime in the future and such outlook is the main cause of suffering. This concept should however not just be understood from a pessimistic or nihilistic view, because also progression as well as reproduction are manifestations of this constant change.